When the Mahatma's cowards erupt in fury, it is hurt. It isn't terror

Took liberty of posting this article here. This is what foreigners are saying. Then why the Hell doesn't Congress Party of India (rather Indian Muslim League in disguise) wake up?. Or they really are Indian Muslim League. BJP should stand up and be counted as party of Hindus, for Hindus. Not be cowards.

When the Mahatma's cowards erupt in fury, it is hurt. It isn't terror.
Francois Gautier

Is there such a thing as 'Hindu terrorism', as the arrest of Sadhvi Pragya Singh Thakur for the recent Malegaon blasts may tend to prove? Well, I guess I was asked to write this column because I am one of that rare breed of foreign correspondents—a lover of Hindus! A born Frenchman, Catholic-educated and non-Hindu, I do hope I'll be given some credit for my opinions, which are not the product of my parents' ideas, my education or my atavism, but garnered from 25 years of reporting in South Asia (for Le Journal de Geneve and Le Figaro).

In the early 1980s, when I started freelancing in south India , doing photo features on kalaripayattu, the Ayyappa festival, or the Ayyanars, I slowly realised that the genius of this country lies in its Hindu ethos, in the true spirituality behind Hinduism. The average Hindu you meet in a million villages possesses this simple, innate spirituality and accepts your diversity, whether you are Christian or Muslim, Jain or Arab, French or Chinese. It is this Hinduness that makes the Indian Christian different from, say, a French Christian, or the Indian Muslim unlike a Saudi Muslim. I also learnt that Hindus not only believed that the divine could manifest itself at different times, under different names, using different scriptures (not to mention the wonderful avatar concept, the perfect answer to 21st century religious strife) but that they had also given refuge to persecuted minorities from across the world—Syrian Christians, Parsis, Jews, Armenians, and today, Tibetans. In 3,500 years of existence, Hindus have never militarily invaded another country, never tried to impose their religion on others by force or induced conversions.

You cannot find anybody less fundamentalist than a Hindu in the world and it saddens me when I see the Indian and western press equating terrorist groups like Islamist SIMI, which blow up innocent civilians, with ordinary, angry Hindus who burn churches without killing anybody. We know also that most of these communal incidents often involve persons from the same groups—often Dalits and tribals—some of who have converted to Christianity and others not.

However reprehensible the destruction of Babri Masjid, no Muslim was killed in the process; compare this to the 'vengeance' bombings of 1993 in Bombay , which wiped out hundreds of innocents, mostly Hindus. Yet the Babri Masjid destruction is often described by journalists as the more horrible act of the two. We also remember how Sharad Pawar, when he was chief minister of Maharashtra in 1993, lied about a bomb that was supposed to have gone off in a Muslim locality of Bombay .

I have never been politically correct, but have always written what I have discovered while reporting. Let me then be straightforward about this so-called Hindu terror. Hindus, since the first Arab invasions, have been at the receiving end of terrorism, whether it was by Timur, who killed 1,00,000 Hindus in a single day in 1399, or by the Portuguese Inquisition which crucified Brahmins in Goa . Today, Hindus are still being targeted: there were one million Hindus in the Kashmir valley in 1900; only a few hundred remain, the rest having fled in terror.

Blasts after blasts have killed hundreds of innocent Hindus all over India in the last four years. Hindus, the overwhelming majority community of this country, are being made fun of, are despised, are deprived of the most basic facilities for one of their most sacred pilgrimages in Amarnath while their government heavily sponsors the Haj. They see their brothers and sisters converted to Christianity through inducements and financial traps, see a harmless 84-year-old swami and a sadhvi brutally murdered. Their gods are blasphemed.

So sometimes, enough is enough.At some point, after years or even centuries of submitting like sheep to slaughter, Hindus—whom the Mahatma once gently called cowards—erupt in uncontrolled fury. And it hurts badly. It happened in Gujarat . It happened in Jammu , then in Kandhamal, Mangalore, and Malegaon . It may happen again elsewhere. What should be understood is that this is a spontaneous revolution on the ground, by ordinary Hindus, without any planning from the political leadership. Therefore, the BJP, instead of acting embarrassed, should not disown those who choose other means to let their anguished voices be heard.

There are about a billion Hindus, one in every six persons on this planet. They form one of the most successful, law-abiding and integrated communities in the world today. Can you call them terrorists?
(The writer is the editor-in-chief of the Paris-based La Revue de l'Inde.)


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Hobby Of Kings - Part 5

Coins in India before Mauryan Empire

Pre-Coinage
In the Rig Veda, the price of an image of Indra, which was being offered for sale, is said to be ten cows. In another passage, a sage is said to have refused to sell his image of Indra for a hundred, or a thousand, or even ten thousand cows. In a third passage, we are told that the Bharat army went out for war, impelled by the desire to acquire cows. Again, we find that Indra sent his messenger to recover his stolen treasure and treasure was nothing deals but cows. Similarly, in the Aitareya Brahmana, wealth is frequently estimated in terms of cows.

It was then; found that metal, which could not be destroyed easily and was handier, could be used as a stable medium of exchange. However, mere discovery of metal as a suitable medium could not serve the purpose. The problem was how to use metal. However, transactions involving metal were equally tedious as scales were required for every transaction. To overcome this difficulty metallic pieces of definite weight and value began to be used. In course of time, settlement of bargains on the basis of a particular weight and form became customary.

The medium was required to be uniform in weight and size to serve the purpose of exchange. Consequently, balance was invented, and with it raised the need for a standard weight. Seeds were considered a suitable medium, as they were fairly uniform in weight and size. Metal was weighed against seeds and various kinds of seeds were introduced as standard weights in different regions, according to their availability.

In spite of the apparent uniformity in weight and size of ingots and metal sheets, or pieces made from them, there was no guarantee as to the quality of the metal. To obviate these difficulties, the practices of stamping the metallic pieces with a mark or device of a responsible authority as assign of guarantee were introduced in many countries. This led to the birth of the coin.

Coin System

Ancient Indian coinage was based on `Karshapana' unit that consists of 32 rattis (3.3 grams of silver). A `Ratti' is equivalent to 0.11 gms which is the average weight of a Gunja seed (a bright scarlet colored seed). Subsidiary denominations of Karshapana like half Karshapana (16 ratti), quarter Karshapana (8 ratti) and 1/8 of Karshapana (4 ratti) were also minted.

Panini, Sanskrit grammarian ( c500 BCE) in his treatise Astdhyayi wrote about coins and various fractions suggesting that the concept of coins existed prior to 500 BCE. He mentioned Satamanas (sata= 100, manas = units) and Karshapana ( subfraction). Each unit was called "Ratti" weighing 0.11 grams. Ratti was average weight of a Gunja seed (a bright red seed with a black tip - see the picture below). He has also mentioned Satamana, Nishkas, Sana, Vimastika, Karshapana and it's various sub-divisions as coins. There is a sutra that illustrate that metallic pieces were stamped (ahata) with rupa (symbols). it appears that during his time stamped metallic pieces had become contemporary and that along with the unstamped metallic and were concomitantly current. In the Ashtadhyayi, coins are also called karshapna and sana.

It is stated in the Taitariya Brahmans suggests that ' Krishnala ' was the unit for weighing metal. Krishnala or abrus precatorius is referred to in later literature as raktika or gunja and known to us today as ratti. But this is the only reference of krishnala in Vedic literature.

Another type of money mentioned in Vedic literature is Nishka; it is generally believed that nishka was ornament, some kind of a necklace. Nishka is mentioned in tens and hundreds as payment towards dakshina. It was absolutely a term of value, as is apparent from the ashtadhayi where objects purchased with one, two or three nishkas are called naishkikam, dvi-naishkikam, and tri-naishkikam.

Coins described in Later Vedic Literature:

1) Nishka ( Material : Gold ) : Weight 320 Ratti or 560 Grains

2) Shatamana ( Material : Gold ) : Weight 100 Ratti or 175 Grains

3) Suvarna ( Material : Gold ) : Weight 80 Ratti or 140 Grains

4) Paada ( Material : Gold ) : equal to Quarter Suvarna / Shatamana


Beginning of Indian Coinage
In Rig-Vedic period (Rig Veda is the first out of the four Vedas which contains scriptures and hymns in Sanskrit, probably composed in 10th-13th century BC), the Aryan tribes had spread over the whole country from Kabul (Kubha in Sanskrit) to upper Ganga (Ganges) and had built up small states mostly under hereditary monarchs and few republics. By 11th century BC, India was divided into many small and large states called Janapadas and Mahajanpadas. About 6th century BC, sixteen Mahajanapadas or kingdoms rose to pre-imminence in India. According to ancient text Anguttara Nikayas they were as follows: Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Koshala, Vajji, Malla, Vatsa, Chedi, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Ashvaka, Avanti, Gandhar and Kamboja. One of the earliest coins of india were minted by following Mahajanapadas.

In north western part of India, Takshashila or Taxila and Pushkalavati, became an important commercial centers for the trade with Mesopotamia. These wealthy satrapies (provinces) introduced a unique coinage to facilitate the trade. These were silver concave bars of 11 gms which are popularly called as `Taxila bent bars' or `Satamana bent bars'. Satmana or Shatamana represented 100 rattis of silver in weight (Shata means 100 while mana means unit). These silver bars were punched with two septa-radiate (seven arms) symbols, one at each end. These bent bars represents one of the earliest coins of India.

The earliest coins of India are commonly known as punch-marked coins. As the name suggests, these coins bear the symbols of various types, punched on pieces of silver of specific weight. Interestingly earliest Indian coins have no defined shapes and they were mostly uniface. Secondly, these coins lack any inscriptions written in contemporary languages and almost always struck in silver. These unique characters makes early Indian coins very different than their contemporaries in Greece.

Many early historians believed that concept of coinage was introduced in India by Greeks. But unlike Indian punch-marked coins, Greek coins had inscriptions, they were round in shape, were stamped on both the sides and minted using silver, electrum and gold too. Today we are certain that the concept of coinage was invented in India independent of foreign influence which imparted the unique characteristics to these punch-marked coins, not seen in any other coins of the ancient world.


Most of these Janapadas were subsequently absorbed into Magadha empire (ruled by Saisunaga dynasty) between 600-321 BC. Pradyotas of Avanti were defeated by Saisunaga in 400 BC. The most remarkable king of Magadha was Bimbisara (also called Shrenika) who ascended on throne in 545 BC. He annexed kingdom of Anga (east Bihar) and married princesses of Koshala and Vaishali thereby expanding his kingdom to the borders of Nepal. He was a very efficient administrator and built the city of RajGriha (Rajgir in Bihar). Both, Goutam Buddha and Mahavir Jain preached their doctrines during his reign. His son Ajatshatru (494-462 BC) defeated many of his adversaries including humbling his uncle Presanjit of Koshala. He founded the city Pataliputra (modern Patna) which was metropolis of ancient India for next four centuries.


In ancient India during 600-321 BC, many Janapadas issued coins with only one symbol like Lion (Shursena of Braj), humped bull (Saurashtra) or Swastika (Dakshin Panchala). Four symbol coins were issued by Kashi, Chedi (Bundelkhand), Vanga (Bengal) and Prachya (Tripura) Janapadas. Five symbol punch marked coins were first issued by Magadha which were continued during Mauryan expansion.

Ajatshatru was followed by many kings who eventually lost this kingdom to the family of Nandas who began line of Shudra or semi-Shudra kings. To maintain the huge army of 200,000 infantry and 3000 elephants (supported by Greek evidence), Nandas had to resort to heavy taxation which was detested by people. They found a new leader in Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC) who eventually with the help of Taxilian bramhin Kautilya or Chankya overthrew the Nanda and laid the foundation of illustrious dynasty of Maurya






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A Dream Within A Dream by Edgar Allan Poe

Take this kiss upon the brow!
And, in parting from you now,
Thus much let me avow–
You are not wrong, who deem
That my days have been a dream;
Yet if hope has flown away
In a night, or in a day,
In a vision, or in none,
Is it therefore the less gone?
All that we see or seem
Is but a dream within a dream.

I stand amid the roar
Of a surf-tormented shore,
And I hold within my hand
Grains of the golden sand–
How few! yet how they creep
Through my fingers to the deep,
While I weep–while I weep!
O God! can I not grasp
Them with a tighter clasp?
O God! can I not save
One from the pitiless wave?
Is all that we see or seem
But a dream within a dream?



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Veer Savarkar - Hindutva and Eradication of Untouchability

The reason for the blog, well man current day politicians, feed on the history books written by all communist parties don't quiet understand the philosophy which Swatantrya Veer Savarkar followed and preached. The most common label associated with him is that of Hindu Extremist belonging to a high caste who wanted to make India only a pure Hindu country so that the high caste people will always remain in power.

It's a sad thing that the current ruling party, who's many policies are actually one's which where introduced by Savarkar, go to such a length of discrediting him. They are also trying to(or may be already removed) plague from Andaman Nicobar Island Jails which has Savarkar's writing's on it.

Also it's a small note to all dalit upliftment organisations, who simply go on blaming these so called extremist Hindu's for there woes, please go through the work done by these revolutionaries before making such comments.

Anyways, following are some key points in Savarkar's life, which are not known to many.


1909 - Gandhi was in London in November. Savarkar then organised a public gathering of Indians to celebrate the festival Vijayadashami. He requested Gandhi to be its Chairman.

In his speech Gandhi said, “Though I have my differences with Savarkar, I consider it a great honour to be in his company today.” Referring to the fact that Savarkar was not called to the bar, Gandhi said, “May India bear the fruits of his sacrifices.”

Since 1911-
Savarkar organised the political prisoners and started to raise their voice against filthy conditions, poor quality food and lack of amenities. Hindus were particularly badly treated. He said, “ When we fought for better life for Hindus we also took side of Muslim prisoners too, when required. By our agitation we brought about changes in prison life. That benefited Hindus as well as Muslims who therefore developed a respect for us.”

Shuddhi movement

Savarkar witnessed how Muslims were forcing their religion on Hindus by the most brutal means with the connivance of the prison authorities. He mounted an agitation against this practice and started re-conversion of those forcibly converted to Islam back to Hindu Dharma. This was called Shuddhi.

He said, “ In this chapter, and in others I had to mention repeatedly the fanaticism and barbarity of Muslims. That is unfortunate, but majority of Muslim prisoners were religious zealots. But those Muslims who were not religious fanatics will testify how friendly I was with them.”

“ It must be said that not only the ordinary Muslims but even the fanatic Muslims developed a deep respect for me. Because, apart from our quarrel over their proselytization activities I took their side against the prison authorities just as I did for Hindu prisoners. I supported their legitimate demands and fought for their grievances too.”

“Moreover, we political prisoners were trying to improve conditions in prison and try to remove utterly harsh life. As a result we suffered un-describable punishments. The reforms we brought about as a result of our agitation were beneficial to Hindus as well as Muslims. It would have been surprising if those fanatical Muslims had not developed a sense of respect and gratitude for us.”

“ Every one has right to propagate their religion by preaching. But Muslims always resort to gangsterism, violence, murder, kidnapping and rape to spread Islam. That will not be tolerated. Muslims must accept that we Hindus too have right to preach our religion and convert Muslims to our religion.”

He wrote “I always maintained that Shuddhi (re-conversion) and Sanghatan (organisation of Hindus) are essential for achieving Hindu Muslim unit. That is why I first took a case of forcible conversion to Islam in 1913 and have been fighting for the same cause ever since. I must stress that I never hated or despised Muslims, Christians or even the tribal people. I only denounce the tendency of Muslims to impose their religion on others by barbarous means.”

With persistent efforts the tide of Muslim aggression turned. By 1920, Savarkar wrote, “ Those Muslims who had terrorised us Hindus in the past feared that Hindus will now seek revenge. That was reflection of their behaviour. It had never been in the blood of Hindus to behave rudely towards others. I must emphasise that we always treated fairly any ordinary Muslims and those who were free from religious fanaticism. I taught many of them to read and write. I wrote applications of many Muslim prisoners. I always did things to improve their life with whatever little influence I had in prison. I am sure they will testify to that.”

Note - Unfortunately Savarkar’s book ‘My transportation for life’ was published in Marathi only in 1927. It was vital that English version should have been published for wider publicity but that did not happen and when Gujarati translation was published in 1934 the book was banned by British Authorities in Bombay Province. The English version was not published till 1950.

1924 - March - Savarkar’s articles about impending danger to Hindus in Sind province was published. In it Savarkar wrote, “Oh Muslims, remember what happened recently in Mecca when Sindhi Muslims went on Haj pilgrimage! How much they were insulted and humiliated by Arab Muslims. Who will come to your rescue? Hindus. So, it is in your interest to stop your religious fanaticism.”

1924 - July - Savarkar stressed the need for emancipation of the untouchables and worked for the same incessantly during his internment.

1924 - December - Jatpat Todak Mandal (Society for the abolition of the caste system), Lahore elected Savarkar as President for their annual session, but he could not attend due to restrictions on him.

1929 - On May 19th Savarkar presided over the conference of (former) untouchables held in Malvan. Mr Rajbhoj, editor of the paper ‘Dalitbandhu’, said, “ Savarkar is sincere in his efforts for securing a better life for us and this has removed my misconceptions about his Hindu Sanghatan movement.”

On 20th Savarkar distributed the holy threads (janeo) to the then untouchables and said, “ Now there is no reason for infighting. Let us all unite under the banner of Hindu Dharma. The Vedas are just as heritage of yours as they of the Brahmins.” This was a great revolutionary step indeed.

1930 - Savarkar practised ‘dining together’ of all Hindus since 16 November 1930. Such functions were not heard of even among the High caste Hindus. In Ratnagiri even the untouchables participated.

On 9 December, Times of India reported, “ Mr Gandhi, and many of his followers in the Congress Party believe in Chaturvarnya and castes based on birth. But the reformers in Ratnagiri believe that castes based on birth are harmful and have started ‘dining together’ of all Hindus including untouchables, and it is astonishing that Mr V D Sarvarkar is their source of inspiration.”

(Times of India remained a life long opponent of Savarkar)

So much for the secular ideology being followed by the current day Congress party. Following path of a Hindu Nationalist Savarkar, yet denouncing him, not acknowledging him and on top of it going to the Andaman Jails and removing the Plaque which he had written on. Go learn history first.

1931 - A Temple for ALL Hindus

On 22 February, The famous Hindu temple ‘Patit Pavan Mandir’ was consecrated and declared open by Savarkar to Hindus of all castes including the untouchables. There was no other similar temple throughout India.

On 25th sixth annual conference of the Bombay Province Association for Removal of Untouchability of was held in Ratnagiri. Savarkar was in chair. Delegates from outside Ratnagiri could not believe the enormous social changes brought about by Savarkar.

In March, the untouchables carried a Satyagraha for allowing entry into the Rama Temple in Nasik. As Savarkar was interned in Ratnagiri, he could not go to Nasik. He therefore sent a letter to High Caste Hindu residents of Nasik and appealed to them to allow the untouchables in the temple. The Times (of London) published the letter on 20 March 1931 and remarked “ A touching letter to Hindus”

April 26

Somavanshi Mahars (a former untouchable caste) held their conference in Patit Pavan Mandir. Savarkar was in chair. Some 700 Mahars participated. They could not believe that there was a Temple open to all Hindus including untouchables.

During the conference some Mahars from Mumbai objected to the slogan “Hindu Dharma ki jai” or Glory to the Hindu Dharma. After discussion with Savarkar they changed their minds and shouted, “Hindu Dharma ki jai.”

1932 - April 9 - Somavanshi Mahars of Ratnagiri District held their conference in Ratnagiri. Savarkar was the chief guest. At the end, the participants resolved that they will remain Hindus and will NOT change their religion.

1933 - Since December 1932 Savarkar had been in touch with Mr Gopalrao Deodhar of the All India Anti-untouchability League (Maharashtra branch). Seth Ghanashyamdas Birla was President of the League. He was prepared to spend 25,000 rupees for benefit of untouchanbles of Maharashtra. Savarkar collected Rs 500 in Ratnagiri District and Birla added Rs 1,000. The fund was utilised for housing, education, building wells and other social benefits.

With incessant efforts Savarkar managed to abolish the observance of untouchability in Ratnagiri and on 22 February 1933, an effigy of untouchability was publicly burned in that town.

1933 - A Café for all Hindus

Savarkar opened a café for all Hindus in Ratnagiri on 1 May 1933. Tea, snacks and food were served by an untouchable. Such a café was unthinkable at that time even in industrial city like Mumbai.

1935 - Prof Patwardhan was one of those who opposed Savarkar’s views on purification of Marathi language. He wrote, “ I was asked by editor of Vividh Dnyanvistar to write an article criticising Savarkar. But I thought that before critising him I must read his articles. The surprise was that when I studied his articles on purification of Marathi language I became thoroughly convinced of his arguments and became his staunch supporter.”

That has been the tragedy of Savarkar. Our history would have changed substantially if only his opponents had at least read his views. A well known follower of Gandhi made such a confession in 1983.

May be the current Congress party and the communist parties of India should do that.


1940 - 22 June
Subhash Chandra Bose came to see Savarkar. He told Bose, “ Why do you waste time in your movement to remove the monument to ‘ Blackhole of Calcutta ‘? A person like you should go out of India and form an army out of our prisoners of war and attack the British from outside the India. There are only two or three such men who can dare such an attempt. But I have particularly high hopes about you.”

Bose eventually did what Savarkar had asked by forming the Indian National Army (I.N.A) out of the prisoners of war held by the Japanese.

1954 - Rajendra Prasad, first President of India visited Andaman Islands. He saw the prison cell where Veer Savarkar was imprisoned and bowed in respect.

1964 - Nehru died in May. Within months, the Congress Party repented the years of neglect of Savarkar and in October the Government of India sanctioned him a pension, acknowledging his part in the Indian freedom struggle against the British rule.

1966 - Self-immolation of Savarkar. As soon as his death was announced, K M Munshi, founder President of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, rushed to Savarkar’s house and paid his respects (Bhavan’s journal June 2001, p19)

Munshi was Home Minister in the first Congress Government of Bombay Province during 1937-39.

1983 - 26th February was death anniversary of Veer Savarkar. Well-known Marathi writer Purushottam Laxman Deshpande was on Andaman Islands. He visited the cell where Savarkar was kept and was overwhelmed by emotions. The cell was only 13 by 7 foot. Deshpande then addressed the Maharashtrians who had gathered outside the cell and made a powerful speech. It was astonishing that a Socialist and admirer of Gandhi and Nehru all his life could make such a speech and pay tributes to Savarkar.

Deshpande made following points –
* The punishments suffered by Savarkar are described in his book ‘My Transportation for Life’ However, it is my conviction that he has not described even 10% of what he actually suffered, because he did not want pity or sympathy. He wanted the youth to come forward and say – ‘I too am prepared to suffer like Savarkar for our nation.’

* We do not even read what he had preached.

* Persons like Savarkar never die, nor ever say Goodbye. They are eternal. Even one line or one word of from them gives us inspiration.

* Persons like Savarkar can never die by any vicious attacks, or neglect or propaganda against them. They are self-made. They live like the great Banyan trees providing comforts to others in their hour of need.

* We need to think how his thoughts could be spread in all the Indian languages.

* So much has happened here that every Indian should come here in bow in respect of freedom fighters like Savarkar.

Deshpande concluded his speech by saying, “ To remind our people every year, there should be a day of celebrations, right here in the Cellular Jail on national level. And it should be presided by the highest authority of the country.”


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Where the Sidewalk Ends by Shel Silverstein

There is a place where the sidewalk ends
And before the street begins,
And there the grass grows soft and white,
And there the sun burns crimson bright,
And there the moon-bird rests from his flight
To cool in the peppermint wind.

Let us leave this place where the smoke blows black
And the dark street winds and bends.
Past the pits where the asphalt flowers grow
We shall walk with a walk that is measured and slow,
And watch where the chalk-white arrows go
To the place where the sidewalk ends.

Yes we’ll walk with a walk that is measured and slow,
And we’ll go where the chalk-white arrows go,
For the children, they mark, and the children, they know
The place where the sidewalk ends.


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Essentially Unessential: Hobby of Kings - Part 4

Essentially Unessential: Hobby of Kings - Part 4

Hobby of Kings - Part 4

Coins of China

The shapes and manufacturing method of the coins can be considered as indirect evidence of independent invention in China. The chinese coins were made of base metals by casting . The earliest chinese coins were probably made in Yellow river valley. They were made of in the shape of miniature hoes, spades and knives. They were probably first issued around the 6th century BCE during the Zhou dynasty.

The first metallic coins, cast in bronze, date from about 500 B.C. according to Chinese archaelogists. The first coins were cast bronze imitations of these monetary objects, hoes, knives and cowries. It may be that these metal objects first served as means of exchange in the country. ... Four types of coinage were current in China in the fourth and third centuries [B.C.]. ... They were as follows: the Shansi region ... where spade-shaped coins were in circulation; the kingdoms of the north-east ... where coins were knife-shaped; the Wei valley in Shensi ... where round coins with a central hole were used; lastly the sphere of influence of the the Ch"u kingdom (middle Yangtse and Han valley), where use was made of gold coins shaped as tablets divided into sixteen little squares carrying the indication of their value, and where bronze cowrie shells were also struck

The earliest coins were inscribed imitation hoes issued by the Zhou kings in the late sixth century BC ... In the third century BC a practical solution to the problem of handling irregularly shaped coins was found by replacing hoe and knife coins with flat disc-shaped coins with a central hole, so they could be carried in bulk on strings.

Hollow Spade Coins
Several specimens of hollow handled spades with a pointed feet from Shantung peninsula were dated to be from 600 BCE. The dating of these coins is not considered definitive by many scholars. There is considerable disagreement among the numismatic scholars. Hollow handle spades with pointed feet are called Pu. They are considered to be the first coins by some. The name suggest that they might be transition money from primitive money. Pu was the term of earlier primitive money. These spades can not be considered as true coins for lack of stamping or inscriptions on them. However, they were cast to an ancient chinese weight standard of 1 liang = 24 shu (1 shu = 0.56g). These spades were cast to 3 liang.




Flat Foot Spade Coins
The second type are the large, heavy flat-foot spades occurring in a number of varieties both with and without inscriptions (one or two characters when present). The form is very close to that of actual tools, suggesting an early date. They are rare, suggesting a short-lived series and/or a very restricted area of circulation, but there are other hollow-handled spade types that appear to have evolved from them.

These large hollow-handled pointed foot spades appear to have evolved into the smaller, more robust hollow-handled spades with a shallow curve to the foot and single-character inscriptions, which show up much more commonly today.




The name of the denomination is as yet uncertain, but the evidence indicates units of "CHIN". Wang, on plate X #2, illustrates a specimen with the character for "CHIN", and on plate XI #2 another specimen which seems to indicate a denomination of "3 CHIN". The first specimen appears to be of a slightly earlier series and it is possible the denomination changed from 1 chin to 3 chin at some point, but this seems unlikely. It is more likely the earlier spades did not need a units mark as only one denomination (3 chin) was in use. The second, slightly later type, is part of a series with more than one denomination, so unit marks become more important.

Flat Handle Spade Coins
Around 400 BC flat spades revolutionized the spade currency. Unlike the hollow-handled spades which required a complex multi-piece mold with a casting core in the handle, the flat spades required only a simple two-piece mold, allowing for larger mintages in shorter periods of time. They were sturdy and easier to store. The flat spades were cast to an ancient chinese weight standard based on multiples of 12 shu (1 shu = 0.56g). They were issued in three denominations of 1/2 liang (12 shu), 1 liang (24 shu) and 2 liang (48 shu). They were called "CH'IEN. This word later come to mean money in Chinese language. They also met all the conditions to be a true coin. Many bear mint and denomination marks, suggesting they may have circulated beyond the boundaries of the cities that cast them.





Pointed Foot and Round Foot Thin Spade Coins
Pointed Foot and Round Foot thin spades are a bit of a mystery. Wang suggests they evolved directly from hollow-handled spades and are contemporary with the heavy flat spades, but from different mints. Their general form and style of calligraphy tends to suggest this may be so, in which case they belong to the 4th century BC, and we would expect some of them (early issues) to be cast to a 12 shu standard, with possibly others (later issues) at a 10 shu standard. We hope to be able to look into this fairly soon.




It appears that between 350 and 250 BC the heavy flat spades gave way to the thinner square foot flat handled spades, in an extensive series bearing a variety of mint names, but only a few distinct forms.

Most spades in this series weight between 5 and 6 grams (10 shu) but for some types there are also examples around 11 grams (20 shu). The larger examples with sharp corners can weight as much as 14 gram but appear to have been intended as a 20 shu denomination. Their denominations were 1/2 liang (10 shu) and 1 liang (20 shu).



Knife Coins
The knife money probably appeared around 500 BCE in the Yellow river valley. Some believe that they were cast earlier than 500 BCE. We assume the pointed knifes, with a smooth curve down the back, are the earliest form of knife money. They have the closest style to genuine knives, and like the early hollow-handled spades often appear without inscriptions, although the inscriptions are normally weak or difficult to see on most specimens. The casting and calligraphy are similar to the hollow-handled spades. They were called "Ch'i" knifes. It is a difficult and contentious issue dating this Knife money. Pointed knives and Ming knives average between 15 and 16 grams or about 30 shu.




Ming Knife Coins
The "Ming" knifes probably followed next, but they are still a bit of a mystery. The fabric is similar to common square-foot spades except that the inscriptions give no indications of mint names. All bear the character "Ming" on one side, which Wang (page 166) suggests is made up of the characters for "sun" and "moon", meaning "bright". These are by far the most common of all knife money and must have been cast in vast numbers, and are found over a wide area of Northern China and as far away as Northern Korea





There are two distinct shapes of ming knifes, the first of which has a distinctly angled back, and the second with a mildly curved back. The exact significance of this is uncertain, but it is possible that the mildly curved back varieties are the earliest, having evolved from the pointed curved back knifes. A partial hoard of these that we obtained recently, had both types well represented.

The curved-back ming knifes can be further divided into two distinct inscription varieties. The first variety has a mint name and monetary designation on the reverse. The second variety has reverse inscriptions which do no appear to have a relationship to mints or denominations. It appears that these two varieties are probably roughly contemporary but from different districts.

All of the angle-back specimens have the second type of inscription without mint name or monetary designation.

Dating ming knifes is a little problematical, but we suspect that they appear in the very late Zhou, probably at the end of the 4th century BC and continue down to and possibly after the unification under the Ch'in.

The more stylized straight knifes, with characters on one or both sides may be contemporary with the ming knifes. There are only a few varieties and the characters appear to be mint names. These tend to be poorly represented in the literature and more work needs to be done on them before we can comment on how they may fit into the system.



The large heavy knifes may be the most misunderstood part of this series. They are traditionally described as the earliest knife form, a theory to which we cannot subscribe. With the exception of the three-character Ch'i knife, which is not overly common, all heavy knifes are rare to extremely rare. If they had really seen the 600 years of circulation suggested by Wang, one would expect them to be very common coins.



The dating of these coins will probably remain uncertain until archeological evidence can provide some answers, but the coins themselves do give us some clues. It is significant that no uninscribed, or even simple versions are known to exist. These are normal steps in coinage evolution, which exist for hollow-handle spades, pointed knifes and cowry imitations. In fact these heavy knifes first appear with full developed complex inscriptions including a mint name and indication of a monetary unit, a feature not seen on other coins until the late hollow-handled and heavy flat spades which probably date to around 400 BC.

While rims are present on many ancient coins, they are usually low and thin. The rims on these coins are thick and high. There is no real parallel to them, but the closest seem to be the early round coins of "I" (a city in the Ch'i territory), which are certainly of a very late date. Of the specimens that we have seen, none have shown significant signs of wear, which leads us to believe that they may not have been part of the general circulating coinage. They also seem to be the most finely cast of all ancient Chinese coins.

When all the features of these coins are considered, we can believe they may have been made for ceremonial purposes such as presentations or burial, which is consistent with the use of the state (Ch'i) as a mint designation, rather than one of the cities in Ch'i as is the usual pattern for the coinage of the Zhou period.

Round Holed Coins
The round coins with round hole in the center appeared around 300 BCE. They have a mint mark and monetary units on them. They were cast with new weight standard. There came in two denomination 1/2 liang (10 shu or 5 grams) and 1 liang (20 shu or 10 g) and ch'ien.

Early round coins with round holes can be divided into two major types. The first type are those with multiple-character inscriptions including both mint marks and monetary units having many features similar with the heavy flat spades.
They differ from the spades in one important aspect. All the specimens we have been able to confirm fall into the weight system based on multiples of 10 shu with an average about 10 grams (20 shu) for the full units, and about 5 grams (10 shu) for the half units, while the heavy flat spades were cast to the weight standard based on multiples of 12 shu. This leads us to believe they we issued as a replacement for the heavy flat spades as the new weight system was adopted

The second series of round-holed round coins are those with only a mint name, but no denomination. These are seen with either one-or two-character legends but in all other ways, including the weights, resemble the multi-character types. The use of only a mint name without monetary units is a characteristic shared with the square-foot spades which are cast to the same weight standard, in a close relationship between the two and suggest a date right around or just after 300 BC.



Square-Holed Round Coins
Early square-holed round coins seem to be found exclusively in areas associated with knife money. They come in two distinct series, the relatively common "MING" types that appear to be related to the ming knifes, and the much scarcer "I" series which seem to represent the issues of a single mint called "I". The only inscriptions they have is their monetary designation of "HUO", a character which has come to mean "knife money", but which had also become a unit of denomination by the time these coins were issued.




Coins Ring - New Post
Coins Ring - Old Post

Hungarian Notation

In Microsoft, a man named Charles Simonyi created specification for writing Microsoft code. All Microsoft APIs, interfaces, technical articles, and so on use these conventions.
The specification is generally referred to as Hungarian notation

Hungarian notation consists of a number of conventions relating to naming:
• Variables
• Functions
• Types and constants
• Classes
• Parameters

Following figure shows all the prefix codes used in Hungarian notation. These codes are used to prefix variable names in most cases, along with other conventions depending on what is being named.



Variable Naming

With Hungarian notation, variables are prefixed by the codes mentioned in above figure. In addition, if a variable name is made up of one or more subnames, each subname is capitalized.


Basically, you begin the variable with g_, or sometimes just plain g.


Function Naming

Functions are named in the same way variables are, but without the prefixes. In other words, just capitalize all the first letters of subnames. Here are some examples:

int PlotPixel(int ix, int iy, int ic);
void *MemScan(char *szString);

Also, underscores are illegal. For example, the following wouldn’t be a valid
Hungarian-compliant function name:

int Get_Pixel(int ix, int iy);

Type and Constant Naming

All types and constants are in uppercase, but you’re allowed to use underscores in the names. For example:



Class Naming

All C++ classes must be prefixed by a capital C, and the first letter of each subname of the class name must be capitalized. Here is an example:



Parameter Naming

Parameters to functions follow the same naming conventions that normal variables do.
However, this is not a necessity. For example, you might see a function definition that looks like this:

UCHAR GetPixel(int x, int y);

In this case, the more Hungarian prototype would be

UCHAR GetPixel(int ix, int iy);

Also you might not even see the variable names, but just the types, as in this example:

UCHAR GetPixel(int, int);

Of course, this would only be used for the prototype, and the real function declaration must have variable names to bind to.


Programming Ring - New Post
Programming Ring - Old Post

The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.


Poems Ring - New Post
Poems Ring - Old Post

The Man Spurs Will Never Forgive - by LD on VitalFootball

http://www.arsenal.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a=506261


I've expressed my disdain for transfer news dozens of times, so with an impending summer of annoying garbage in store and no 'real' football to write about, I have decided to produce a series to replace the twenty questions gambit which will be on hiatus in the summer. (My propensity to produce series is common amongst obsessives)! So I have decided to focus on Arsenal's intimidating history to look for its pinnacle figures. Men who were responsible for the evolution of the club, either as players, managers or administrators. A club such as Arsenal is blessed with a multitude of such figures, so there are omissions. Men such as Don Howe, who has had three spells at the club including as Assistant Manager to Bertie Mee in the 71 Double triumph. Ken Friar who joined the club in 1950 as a messenger and rose to become our Chief Executive and is now our acting Managing Director. Great players such as Ted Drake, Ian Wright and Robert Pires, though beacons of our club, do not make the list. These are the men that are the perpetrators of Arsenal's fortune, men who became synonymous with the grandeur associated with Arsenal Football Club, the revoltionaries who put us on the map. Throughout the summer I'll take a whistle stop tour through the lot.

Where else could I possibly begin? Herbert Chapman I hear you cry? No. I begin with a man who was the catalyst for our success, the man who bullied Arsenal into the collective conscious. Politician, racketeer, Machiavel. A controversial figure whose legacy can be summed up thusly. Seventy years after his death and eighty years after leaving the club, Spurs still hate him. Of course I am talking about Henry Norris. Aptly, Norris was a distant relation to a sixteenth Century diplomat of the same name who was executed for his, ahem, attention to Anne Boleyn. Like his distant Grandfather, Henry Norris would revel in befriending and betraying the upper echelons of high society. Norris was born in 1865, leaving school at 14, he developed his sharp negotiating acumen as an estate agent. He was almost solely responsible for Fulham's regeneration, he quickly acquired a fortune in property, building up a network on contacts and connections which he would later call upon to aid the Gunners. He was made Mayor of Fulham, a leading Tory and a Freemason. Norris did not so much press the flesh as pound it into submission, whether it be with his legendary charm or his fearsome bark. Norris stood at over six feet tall and wore a thick monacle, which distorted his gaze. This added to a Bond villainesque kind of presence, which he utilised fully to impose himself on detractors.

In 1912, the well to do Norris wanted to buy a London football club and challenge the North of England's dominance in the sport. With Chelsea, Clapton Orient and Tottenham Hotspur all operating soundly, Norris knew he could barge his way onto the board of troubled Woolwich Arsenal with ease. He was the Abramovic of his time. The Arsenal board welcomed his savvy negotiating skills, as a Director of Fulham he had bartered Fulham from the Southern League to Division Two in just four years, leading to unfounded accusations of bribery. Norris wanted to merge Fulham and Arsenal, but for the only time until his ill reputed expulsion from football, the Football League blocked Norris from doing so. He was however, allowed to stay on as a Director of Fulham whilst simultaneously being Arsenal's Chairman. With the merger blocked, Sir Henry set about a contingency plan. With Woolwich Arsenal in the midst of a 1912/13 campaign that would see them relegated in front of meagre crowds in the inaccessible backwater of Plumstead (where a good deal ofmy family hail from incidentally, it's still a pain to get to) in front of tiny crowds, Norris sought about moving Arsenal into the London Borough of Islington. He set his sights on Finsbury Park, a short jaunt from the West End, better transport links and a much bigger population.

Using his swelling address book, Norris secured six acres of land owned by the St. John's Divinity College at Avenell Road- a sight used by bishops and priests to play cricket. Of course, local clubs saw the threat. Orient, Spurs and Chelsea continued to lobby the football league to block the move. If the local NIMBYs we faced securing the Emirates looked hard work, what Norris faced was infinitely more challenging. An F.A. Committee investigated the proposed relocation, but guess what? The committee was coincidentally packed with Norris' chums and they gave it the go ahead. Next up, the Church Committee who vehemently opposed the idea of an 'ungodly' practise such as football taking place on holy grounds. But a £20,000 cheque seemed to quell their protests. Norris' friendship with the Archbishop of Canterbury cannot have harmed Norris' quests to get the deeds signed by, erm, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Norris erstwhily promised not to sell intoxicating liquor and not to host matches on holy days. Sir Henry found promises easy to make and impossible to honour. By 1915, booze was on sale in Highbury's walls and the Gunners were fulfilling home fixtures on Christmas Day.

Norris also extended his vast network to the local press, Islington hacks that opposed the move found themselves on the breadlines rather quickly. Norris was also accused of deliberately leaking news of the move during Arsenal's 1912/13 relegation season to the local press and underinvesting in the team to strengthen his grounds for becoming football's first gypsies. Once the opposition had been bribed, charmed and removed, Norris set about constructing the ground. Having made his fortune in property and architecture, he knew exactly where to begin. Henry happened to be chummy with fellow Mason J.Whiting, the Mayor of Manchester. Norris used this contact to establish a friendship with the architect of Newton Heath's Old Trafford ground Archibald Leitch. Arsenal had their architect, Norris hired locals as labourers, the thought process being that this could set the foundations for a North London fanbase and instill a sense of local pride towards the downtrodden nomads. Tottenham countered with a press campaign pleading with North Londoners not to support 'the interlopers.'

With Arsenal having successfully increased their fanbase with the move, Norris' most controversial act was on the horizon. The team were still not performing. They finished fifth in the Second Division in the 1914/15 season, before football was suspended for the war. Chelsea and Tottenham occupied the bottom two positions in Division 1. At the resumption of competitive football in 1919, the Football League were restructuring the football league. Norris used his legendary negotiating savvy by convincing the football league that London based Arsenal would be a more enticing prospect for the top flight than Wolves or Barnsley (who finished above Arsenal in Division Two). Norris would once more call upon backslapping from the boardroom drinks cabinet and promised his good friend the Chelsea chairman that his club would be offered a reprieve and their league status would be assured if they voted for Arsenal's promotion. Arsenal won the vote eight to eighteen and were elected tothe topflight, Wolves and Barnsley stayed down and Tottenham were relegated. The rivalry that enused lasts to this day.

Sir Henry got his comeuppance in 1929. He was found guilty of bribing Sunderland's Charlie Buchan to sign for the Gunners in 1925, in the says of the maximum wage. (Ironically, Arsenal would be the club instrumental of the removal of the maximum wage in the early sixties). He was also found guilty of using club accounts for personal use and pocketed the £125 fee for selling the team bus. In 1929, the F.A. banned him from football for life. But Norris ensured that his upwardly mobile approach would be preserved and Arsenal's legacy would continue to grow. In 1925, he appointed Herbert Chapman as manager and the rest, as they say, is history. Norris was the man who set the foundations for the Gunners' continued success, he took a club in the doldrums and propelled them, by foul means or fair, into football's correct social circles. Arsenal would always be seen at the right parties thereafter. The North London derby is his most identifiable legacy. Years before 71 or 2004, or 1987 or Sol Campbell, Norris sewed the seeds of hatred. He ensured that the gypsies usurped the landed gentry.

- LD


Sick as a parrot
An interesting side story to the whole 1919 vote is apparently the origin of the football cliche sick as a parrot. In 1908 Tottenham had gone on a tour of Argentina. On the ship on the way home and in recognition of their success the ships parrot was presented to the club by the captain. It survived happily at the club for ten years - dying on the day that Arsenal were given Spurs' place in the first division in 1919.
- Amos.



Arsenal Ring - Old Post

There is another sky by Emily Dickinson

There is another sky,
Ever serene and fair,
And there is another sunshine,
Though it be darkness there;
Never mind faded forests, Austin,
Never mind silent fields -
Here is a little forest,
Whose leaf is ever green;
Here is a brighter garden,
Where not a frost has been;
In its unfading flowers
I hear the bright bee hum:
Prithee, my brother,
Into my garden come!

Poems Ring - New Post
Poems Ring - Old Post

Building C++ programs in Linux

This is very basic guide for getting anyone started with building and debugging C/C++ code in GDB.

I will put forth information about building in Linux. The best reference book for this is "Advanced Linux Programming" which is available for free

http://www.advancedlinuxprogramming.com


Building your own C++ code in linux.
I will take code sample which my friend Hari used while giving us GDB training sessions. He used the following code to explain us the way to use GDB for debugging.

list.h:-

#ifndef __LLIST_HEADER_INC__
#define __LLIST_HEADER_INC__

//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
#include 
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// class LinkedList definition begins

class LinkedList
{
 struct LLItem
 {
  int value;
  struct LLItem *next, *prev;
 };

 public:
  LinkedList ();
  ~LinkedList ();

  void push (int val);
  int pop ();
  size_t size () { return m_iSize; };
  
 private:
  LLItem* m_pFirstNode, *m_pCurNode;
  size_t m_iSize;
};

#endif // __LLIST_HEADER_INC__


List.cpp:-
#include "list.hpp"

//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// class LinkedList implementation begins

LinkedList::LinkedList ()
: m_pFirstNode(NULL), m_pCurNode(NULL)
{
}

LinkedList::~LinkedList()
{
 m_pCurNode = m_pFirstNode;
 LLItem* tnode;
 while (m_pCurNode)
 {
  tnode = m_pCurNode->next;
  delete m_pCurNode;
  m_pCurNode = tnode;
 }
 m_pFirstNode = NULL;
 m_pCurNode = NULL;
}

void LinkedList::push (int val)
{
 LLItem* cnode = m_pFirstNode;
 while (cnode && cnode->next)
 {
  cnode = cnode->next;
 }
 
 LLItem* tnode = new LLItem ();
 tnode->value = val;
 cnode->next = tnode;
 tnode->prev = cnode;
 tnode->next = NULL;
 
 ++m_iSize;
}

int LinkedList::pop ()
{
 LLItem* cnode = m_pFirstNode;
 while (cnode && cnode->next)
 {
  cnode = cnode->next;
 }
 
 int value = cnode->value;
 LLItem* pnode = cnode->prev;
 pnode->next = NULL;
 delete cnode;
 --m_iSize;
 
 return value;
}

// class LinkedList implementation ends
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

Main.cpp:-
#include "list.h"
#include 
#include 

int
main ()
{
 LinkedList* ll = new LinkedList ();
 size_t list_size = 100000;
 for (size_t i = 0; i < list_size; ++i)
 {
  ll->push (random ());
 }
 for (size_t i = 0; i < list_size; ++i)
 {
  std::cout << "Popped element " << ll->pop () << std::endl;
  std::cout << "The current size is " << ll->size () << std::endl;
 }
 return 0;
}

The above code is linked list code. It's a buildable code however on execution, it will give segmentation fault. I have placed the code in my $HOME/LinkedList area. The files present are main.cpp, list.h and list.cpp


Creating Object File.

The C++ compiler is called g++ while a C compiler is called gcc. The method of operating is very similiar. Suppose you have main.c, then to compile it, following is the command

% gcc -c main.c

To compile a C source file, you use the -c option. The resulting object file is named main.o.

To compile c++ file we use g++ in similiar way

% g++ -c list.cpp

The -c option tells g++ to compile the program to an object file only; without it, g++ will attempt to link the program to produce an executable. After you’ve typed this command, you’ll have an object file called list.o. Similiarly

Some other options are required when building large applications. The -I option is used to tell GCC where to search for header files. By default, GCC looks in the current directory and in the directories where headers for the standard libraries are installed. If you need to include header files from somewhere else, you’ll need the -I option.

In our case if we have kept out main.cpp in the $HOME/LinkedList area and placed our list.hpp in $HOME/LinkedList/Include area then we need to include the path of .hpp file while building.

% g++ -c -I ../include list..cpp

Note:- On doing "pwd" at prompt, It should display path $HOME/LinkedList

If you’re really building production code, you probably want to have GCC optimize the code so that it runs as quickly as possible.You can do this by using the -O2 command-line option. (GCC has several different levels of optimization; the second
level is appropriate for most programs.) For example, the following compiles list.cpp with optimization turned on:

% g++ -c -O2 list.cpp


Linking Object Files

Now we have objects of both main.cpp and list.cpp. One should always use g++ to link a program that contains C++ code, even if it also contains C code. If your program contains only C code, you should use gcc instead.
We link our code in following manner.

% g++ -o llist main.o llist.o

The -o option gives the name of the file to generate as output from the link step. g++ automatically links in the standard C runtime library containing the implementation of standard functions which have been used in code like cout, cin..... If one needs to link in another library, you would have to specifically link those library's with -l option. In Linux, library names almost always start with lib. For example, the Pluggable Authentication Module (PAM) library is called libpam.a. To link in libpam.a, you use a command like this:

% g++ -o llist main.o llist.o -lpam

The compiler automatically adds the lib prefix and the .a suffix. As with header files, the linker looks for libraries in some standard places, including the /lib and /usr/lib directories that contain the standard system libraries. If one wants the linker to search other directories as well, one should use the -L option, which is the parallel of the -I option. For example.

% g++ -ollist main.o llist.o -L/usr/local/lib/pam -lpam

Although you don’t have to use the -I option to get the preprocessor to search the current directory, you do have to use the -L option to get the linker to search the current directory. In particular, you could use the following to instruct the linker to find the test library in the current directory:

% gcc -o llist main.o llist.o -L. -ltest

Automated Object Building and Linking using Makefile.

The basic idea behind make is simple.One tells make what targets you want to build and then give rules explaining how to build them. One also specify dependencies that indicate when a particular target should be rebuilt. In our case, we have three target:- main.o, list.o and and llist.

Our llist depends upon our list.o and main.o. So for linking and creating our executable files, we need those two objects already created. Also the object files should be rebuilt whenever the corresponding source files change. On top of it, changes to the header file should result in all the source files including it to be rebuilt. In our case list.hpp also should cause both of the
object files to be rebuilt because both source files include that header file.

Also one might want to remove previously created object files and programs and then start fresh built. The rule
for this target uses the rm command to remove the files.

Here’s what Makefile contains:

llist: main.o list.o
g++ $(CFLAGS) -o llist main.o list.o

main.o: main.c list.hpp
g++ $(CFLAGS) -c main.cpp

list.o: list.cpp list.hpp
g++ $(CFLAGS) -c list.cpp

clean:
rm -f *.o llist

You can see that targets are listed on the left, followed by a colon and then any dependencies.
The rule to build that target is on the next line. The line with the rule on it must start with a Tab character, or make
will get confused.

If one types only

% make

on the command-line, you’ll see the following:
% make
g++ -c main.cpp
g++ -c list.cpp
g++ -o llist main.o list.o

You can see that make has automatically built the object files and then linked them. If you now change main.cpp in some trivial way and type make again, you’ll see the following:

% make
g++ -c main.cpp
g++ -o llist main.o list.o

Following command will clean the object files

% make clean
rm -f *.o llist

The $(CFLAGS) is a make variable.You can define this variable either in the Makefile itself or on the command line. GNU make will substitute the value of the variable when it executes the rule. So, for example, to recompile with optimization enabled, you would do this:

% make CFLAGS=-O2
g++ -O2 -c main.cpp
g++ -O2 -c list.cpp
g++ -o llist main.o list.o

For debugging with GDB, one will have to compile with debugging information enabled. Do this by adding the -g switch on the compilation command line. So we build using -g flag in makefile

% make CFLAGS=-g
g++ -g -c main.cpp
g++ -g -c list.cpp
g++ -g -o llist main.o list.o

When one compiles with -g, the compiler includes extra information in the object files and executables.The debugger uses this information to figure out which addresses correspond to which lines in which source files, how to print out local variables, and so forth.


Programming Ring - New Post
Programming Ring - Old Post

Birthday

Well today is m birthday....Born on 13th :)

Some quotes...


How do you expect me to remember your birthday, when you never look any older? happy birthday!

May u grow to be toothless!

God think the world is beautiful then he born u

Today is a day of celebration. why? because, years ago on the same day, god sent me my flesh and bone conscience. wishing my friendly inner voice a very happy birthday.

Hey,u r 1 year older now,1 year smarter now,1 year bigger now,and now u r 1 year closer to all your wishes.happy birthday

Not just a year older, but a year better.

Here's to another year of experience.

Age is all but a number.


General Post Ring - New Post
General Post Ring - Old Post

Hobby of Kings - Part 3

All information taken from various sites:- I will mention all possible sites in Hobby of Kings - Part 6. I personally have no information nor coins about coins of Lydia. I t is just that I found articles about them on websites, so I am just putting some basic information together at one place.


Coins of Lydia:-


Map of the Aegean world c. 800-600 BC, at the time Lydian Lions were minted. The areas in pink, including Athens, were controlled by the Ionian Greeks. The areas in orange, including Sparta, were controlled by the Dorian Greeks. The areas in yellow were controlled by other Greeks. The areas in light green, including Lydia, Thrace, and Macedonia, were controlled by non-Greeks, though the Macedonians were closely related to the Greeks and moving toward integration with Greece and the Lydians, with their capital of Sardis, were in close contact with the Ionian Greeks. (Map courtesy of Hypatia.org.)



South western part of present day Turkey was known in antiquity as Lydia. Ionians (greek settlers on the east coast of Asia minor) described their eastern neighbors Lydians as the people with dark hair and olive colored skin. There was a vigorous trade between the Ionian city states and Lydian kingdom. Lydian rulers and Ionian city state rulers were also related by marriage. Many historians and archaeologists speculate that increased trade was a spark for invention of the coins. Coins might had facilitated a move from cumbersome barter system of trade to simple system based on the money. Others speculate that they were stuck as offerings to the Gods in their religious ceremonies. Lydian coins found in Ionian mainland temple of Greek goddess Artemis (Romans called her Diana) during archeological excavation in 1951 gives credence to such speculation. Logically, both ideas make sense but we may never know.

‘The Lydians,’ says Herodotus , ‘were the first people we know of to strike coins of gold and of silver’. Writings of Herodotus (greek historian) also tell us that Lydian king Croesus had given great number of coins to the temple at Delphi. Croesus asked advice from the Oracle as to the success of his invasion of Persian kingdom. The Oracle told him that if he crossed the river he would destroy a great kingdom. Encouraged, he proceeded with the invasion. Ironically, Persian King Cyrus the Great won the war in 546 BCE and destroyed Lydian kingdom. Persian King acquired the Lydian mints and technology of making quality coins. Persians added copper to gold to prevent easy wear and tear of soft pure gold coins. Thus coin minting spread to Persia.

The dating of Lydian Lion coins is "the most challenging question in ancient Greek numismatic scholarship," according to Nicholas Cahill and John H. Kroll. I believe the Lydian electrum trites were minted during the reign of King Alyattes, c. 610-560 BC,[73]and that the first Lydian coinage was minted during the early part of Alyattes' reign (scholars disagree on the years of Alyattes' reign, with the date of his assuming power ranging between 619 and 609 BC and the date of his death typically being 561 or 560 BC). Alyattes was the father of Kroisos (Croesus), the Lydian king of legendary wealth who was likely the first to strike coins of pure gold and silver. The Mermnad (Mermnadae) dynasty of Lydia consisted of, in chronological order, Gyges, Ardys, Sadyattes, Alyattes, and Kroisos (Croesus).

Passing from these statements of ancient writers to an examination of the earliest Asiatic essays in the craft of coining, we are led to ascribe to the seventh century B.C., and probably to the reign of Gyges (B.C. 687- 652), the founder of the dynasty of the Mermnadae and of the new Lydian empire, as distinguished from the Lydia of more remote antiquity, the first issues of the Lydian mint. Between 600-575 BCE, mainland greek city states learned technology of coin making and started producing their own coins. Silver coins started appearing in Aegina (595-456 BCE), Athens (575 BCE), Corinth (570 BCE). Thus coins spread to the western part of the eurasian continent.

Alyattes is infrequently referred to as Alyattes II. One well-respected ancient coin auction house recently changed its attributions of these coins to Alyattes II, and a few other auction houses and dealers have since followed suit. Wikipedia uses "Alyattes II," based on the online Encyclopaedia of the Orient, though this online work provides no references. The auction house that uses "Alyattes II" said it bases this on John Lempriere's 1788 Classical Dictionary (Biblioteca Classica), its full name being Classical Dictionary of Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors Writ Large, With Chronological Table. This may have been the source used by the online Encyclopaedia of the Orient as well. But Classical Dictionary also doesn't reference its source of the "Alyattes II" usage.

It's likely that Classical Dictionary based it usage on ancient epigraphs or on works whose usage was based on ancient epigraphs, epigraphs being lists of kings on clay tablets and other media. According to the epigraphic tradition,, "Alyattes I" was an earlier king of Lydia, during the eighth century BC, and part of the Tylonid dynasty. The Tylonid dynasty allegedly consisted of Ardys I, Alyattes I, Myrsos, and Kandaules and preceded the Mermnad dynasty. The Tylonid dynasty, in turn, was allegedly preceded by the Heraklid (Sons of Herakles) dynasty, though sometimes the two dynasties are referred to as one, the Heraklid/Tylonid dynasty. According to these lists, the demigod Herakles was the progenitor of the Lydians.

Early numismatists such as Barclay Head believed that Lydian coins were minted as early as c. 700 BC,or even earlier, and some dealers today still date these coins the way they were dated a century ago, following "high chronology." But much archeological evidence has surfaced since then, and the dating of Lydian Lions has been inching forward in time, with most numismatists today arguing for later dating, or "low chronology." Kraay in 1976 wrote that the first coins were minted in "the second half of the seventh century BC,"Price in 1983 "the last quarter of the seventh century [BC],"G.K. Jenkins in 1990 "no earlier than in the late seventh century BC,"Carradice in 1995 likely from "the late seventh to early sixth centuries BC,"and Le Rider in 2001 not "before 590-580 [BC]."

First coins of Lydia were lumps of electrum (naturally occurring amalgam of silver & gold). Electurm lumps were found in mountain streams of Lydia. They were heated to soften, placed on a plate and struck with a punch and hammer. This formed an incuse on one side and marked them as coins.

These coins were produced at a mint constructed by Lydian king Ardys (652-15 BCE) in the capital city of Sardis. They were not true coins by present day definition because they were not of any standard weight & purity of metal or size. Smaller coin has one square incuse and larger coin has two square incuses on obverse and rough surface on reverse

1 Stater coin of electrum of Lydia at the time of King Ardys (652-15 BCE)


1/3 Stater coin of Lydia



Later king of Lydia, Alyattes (610-561 BCE), son of Ardys set a weight standard for the coin (168 grains of wheat for Stater). The earliest issues, thought to date from the reign of Alyattes (about 610–560 BC) or perhaps his predecessor Sadyattes—both of the Mermnad dynasty—feature the Lydian kings’ emblem of a roaring lion, almost always with a curious knob, often called a “nose wart,” on its forehead. Reid Goldsborough has written a very thorough review of what is known about the history of these electrum lion coins of Lydia, and his essay includes citations to the relevant technical literature on the subject. Advancements in metallurgy at this time created coins using anvil die to make a design on the reverse of the coin. Lion''s head was the symbol of Mermnad dynasty. Standard weight met the second condition to be a true coin.

Stater of Lydia at the time of King Alyattes (610-561 BCE)
Two square incuses on obverse and head of a lion on reverse.


Credit of producing true coins in Lydia goes to King Coresus ( 561-46 BCE ) son of Alyattes. He set the standards for purity of metal (98 % gold or silver) and official seal of king on the obverse ( head a lion and Bull). This official seal guaranteed the value of the coin by the King. This met the third condition to be a true coin of the modern definition.

Gold stater of King Coresus ( 561-46 BCE )
Head a lion and bull on reverse and two square incuses on obverse.


Silver Double Siglos coin of King Coresus ( 561-46 BCE )
Head a lion and bull on reverse and two square incuses on obverse



Lydian electrum trite (4.71g, 13x10x4 mm).



This coin type, made of a gold and silver alloy, was in all likelihood the world's first, minted by King Alyattes in Sardis, Lydia, Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), c. 610-600 BC. It can be attributed, among other ways, as Weidauer 59-75 (Type 15).
The specimen pictured above weighs 4.71 grams, has a diameter of 13mm at its widest, and at 4mm, is thick as a nugget. It likely consists of about 55 percent gold, 43 percent silver, 2 percent copper, and trace amounts of lead and iron, with the the later variety consiting of slightly lower gold and higher silver, based upon analyses of these coins by a number of different researchers. The above variety can be attributed, among other ways, as Weidauer Type 15 and Mitchiner Group C.



RJO 55. Electrum 1/12 stater (1.19 g), about 610–560 BC. Obverse: lion’s head right with “nose wart.” Reverse: square incuse punch. A clear and well-centered example of Weidauer’s Type XVI, which is distinguished by the large number of chevrons on the lion’s neck (Weidauer, 1975: 24–25, pl. 10).



Some Other Coins Information:-

1) Thanjavur and Madurai Nayaks


3 coins are thanjavuar nayaks, 4th one is Madurai Nayak
sivaligam in one side and ram and laxeman in other sied

coin obv : ram lax and sita
rev standing king


2)Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
http://www.jdsworld.net/article/m_theresa_thalers.html



Probable:- KM23, Burgau Mint, 1780 SF/X/, Large Mature Bust Restrike, (the "SF" is located under the obverse bust as S·F· while the "X" (saltire) follows the date on the reverse as 1780·X.

3)Indo-Dutch Pagoda


AU "new Porto Nova pagoda" 1747- 1787 (Negapatnam, Tuticorin, Colombo) (1670 - 1784)
Obv.: Formalized full length figure of the deity Rev.: Granulated raised surface. 3,6 gram. "Porto Novo" pagodas of this type were struck at Pulicat, Negapatam and Madras.
Mitchener 1979, 1594. S. Scholten 1229

4)1/4 Karshapan - SUNGA KINGDOM



3RD CENTURY BC
KAUSHAMBI REGION
SCARCE
COPPER - 1.7 GMS
14 MM
OBV: ELEPHANT WALKING TO LEFT
REV: THREE - ARCHED SYMBOL


5) Western Kshatrapas


Visvasimha (277 - 290 AD)
AR Drachm
Dated: Saka 200 (?) (278 AD (?))
Senior ISCH 355; Mitchiner ACW 2744v.
14 mm.
2.22 gm.
Die position=5h
reverse
Obverse: Bust right with close-fitting headdress; date (Brahmi) behind head. Brahmi legend.
Reverse: Three-arched hill (chaitya), crescents and star above, river below; Brahmi legend.


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